What Hath God Wrought

The Prologue details the Battle of New Orleans, fought on January 1, 1815 between British forces under Major General Edward Pakenham and American forces led by Major General Andrew Jackson. Unbeknownst to both, a peace treaty had already been signed. The British, suffering from the cold and lacking supplies, planned an assault against the Americans, whose forces included Tennessee and Louisiana militia, Mississippi dragoons, Black Americans, and the pirate band of Jean and Pierre Laffite. The British attack was poorly executed, leading to a significant defeat with heavy casualties while American casualties were minimal. Despite winning, Jackson faced challenges, including disappointed expectations for reinforcements and ensuring equal rewards for all his soldiers, which he ultimately failed to deliver for the Black veterans.

The victory did not have the strategic significance later attributed by Jackson’s admirers, but it became a symbol of American resilience. Popular though inaccurate narratives focused on the valor of frontier riflemen over the decisive role of artillery, aligning with Jeffersonian visions of an agrarian empire expanding westward. This romanticized vision downplayed the contributions of diverse professional forces in favor of celebrating individualism. The event raised questions about America’s future, whether it would continue to embrace individualistic values or acknowledge the growing importance of industrial and technological advancements.

Howe explores the continental setting of the United States from 1815 to 1848, a period of significant transformation in terms of territorial expansion, population dynamics, and economic development. The United States, within its continental setting, was a land of vast diversity, inhabited by peoples of different races, languages, and aspirations. Howe highlights Indigenous lands and Mexican territories, underscoring the challenges of imposing US authority across the continent.

The chapter delves into the majority agricultural society of the time and the differences in lifestyle and economy between the North and the South, with particular attention to slavery and its economic and social implications. The narrative also covers the various populations in North America, including the burgeoning cities, the “middle grounds,” where European and Indigenous cultures intersected, and the emerging African American free communities.

Significant events, such as the eruption of Mount Tambora and its aftermath, known as “the year without a summer” (53), are discussed in relation to their impact on agriculture and migration. The chapter further explores the integration of the US into a global market economy, the rise of industrialization, and the challenges of transportation and communication across the new territories.

It discusses the economic basis of slavery alongside the ideological shifts that evolved from ambivalence and moral questioning to a more polarized debate characterized by Southern paternalism justifying slavery, Northern abolitionism, and the rise of free African American communities advocating for civil rights. The narrative also considers the role of the US government and the development of Washington, DC, as symbolic of the nation’s aspirations and achievements.

“From the Jaws of Defeat” recounts of the War of 1812 and its aftermath, focusing on the winter of 1814-1815 and culminating in the Battle of New Orleans. This period was marked by a series of military, political, and societal challenges, shedding light on the nation’s resilience and the ideological shifts that were taking place.

The chapter opens with Washington awaiting news from the front lines in New Orleans, where General Andrew Jackson led American forces. Despite the typical three-week duration for news to travel from New Orleans to Washington, the harsh winter extended this wait to four weeks. When victory was finally announced, it sparked widespread celebrations, becoming a moment of national pride and joy amidst the adversities of war.

This celebration is contrasted with the dire situation just months prior, following the British invasion and burning of Washington, DC, in August 1814. The narrative highlights the incompetence and internal conflict among American military leadership, including Secretary of War John Armstrong and Brigadier General William H. Winder, which contributed to the American capitulation at Bladensburg and the subsequent British attack on the capital. The burning of significant buildings, including the White House and Capitol, represented not only a physical but also a psychological blow to the country.

The chapter then delves into the broader context of the war, including the freed slaves fighting alongside the British against their former oppressors, showcasing the war’s impact on all segments of American society. The fear of slave insurrections added another layer of complexity to the American defense strategy, diverting resources and attention away from the British threat.

The narrative transitions to the aftermath of the British raids, particularly the response in Baltimore and the successful defense of Fort McHenry, celebrated in the national anthem, “The Star-Spangled Banner.” The focus then shifts to the diplomatic front, detailing the negotiations and eventual signing of the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the war but left many of its causes unaddressed. Despite this, the treaty and the victory at New Orleans led to a surge in nationalistic pride, redefining the War of 1812 as a second war for independence in the American consciousness.

The chapter closes by reflecting on the war’s legacy, particularly its devastating impact on Indigenous peoples who had allied with the British, hoping to stem the tide of American expansion. The narrative underscores the shift towards a more unified national identity even as it acknowledges the period’s complexities and contradictions.