What Hath God Wrought

The Annexation of Texas represented a volatile blend of politics, power, and providence. Stemming from Texas’s 1836 declaration of independence from Mexico and its subsequent request to join the United States, this move sparked intense debates about the spread of slavery and territorial expansion, according to Howe’s analysis. The annexation was not merely a domestic affair but a geopolitical maneuver that had significant implications, culminating in the Mexican-American War. It exemplified the aggressive spirit of American expansionism, fraught with complex diplomatic and ethical challenges, and set a precedent for future annexations. Through this prism, Howe illustrates how expansionist zeal and the institution of slavery were intertwined, driving a wedge between different regions and ideologies and pushing the nation toward a looming conflict.

The Erie Canal, completed in 1825, stands out in Howe’s work as a symbol of American ingenuity and ambition. This impressive engineering project transformed American commerce, uniting the agricultural riches of the Midwest with the bustling markets of the Atlantic coast. Howe cites the canal as a catalyst for economic growth and a facilitator of unprecedented movement of goods and people. As Howe details, it also spurred further developments in infrastructure, evidencing a nation eager to overcome natural boundaries for commercial and settlement purposes. This canal was a critical artery for the young nation, symbolizing the transformative impact of large-scale infrastructure projects and reflecting a society in rapid transition.

The Indian Removal Act of 1830 represents one of the most egregious examples of the US government’s policy towards Indigenous peoples during the period covered in Howe’s work. This act provided legal backing for the systematic expulsion of Indigenous tribes from their ancestral homelands in the Southeast to territories beyond the Mississippi River, under the guise of benevolent paternalism. Howe critically examines the brutal reality of its implementation, especially through the Trail of Tears, where thousands of Indigenous people suffered from forced displacement, disease, and death. The act and its outcomes epitomize the government’s readiness to sacrifice humanitarian and ethical principles on the altar of American expansion and serve as a stark reminder of the human cost of progress.

Manifest Destiny is a pivotal concept in Howe’s examination of the mid-19th century, functioning as a justifying ideology for American territorial expansion. It was rooted in the belief that the United States was divinely ordained to spread its institutions and values across the North American continent. Howe uses Manifest Destiny to tie together various themes of his book, showing how this belief system rationalized the acquisition of new territories and the displacement of Indigenous peoples. It underscored the notion that American expansion was not only inevitable but also a moral good, despite often resulting in suffering and injustice.

The Nullification Crisis was a critical test of federal authority and state sovereignty, precipitated by South Carolina’s 1832 ordinance declaring federal tariffs null and void within its boundaries. Howe delves into the complexities of the crisis, illustrating how it challenged the concept of a perpetual union and questioned the extent of states’ rights. The resolution of the crisis, which included a forceful response from President Andrew Jackson and a compromise tariff, is portrayed as a pivotal moment in the evolution of American democracy and the delicate balance of power between state and federal governments.

Howe contextualizes the Second Great Awakening as a powerful religious revival that swept through the United States, influencing a wide array of social reforms and political issues. It catalyzed a period of intense religious fervor and introspection, leading to the establishment of numerous churches and reform movements. Howe credits the Second Great Awakening with significantly contributing to the spread of democratic and egalitarian values, as it advocated moral rectitude and championed causes such as the abolition of slavery, temperance, and women’s rights. This movement shaped the moral and ethical climate of the era, spurring individuals and communities to action.