65 pages • 2 hours read
Daniel Walker HoweWhat Hath God Wrought
Nonfiction | Book | Adult | Published in 2007A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.
Chapters 7-10Chapter Summaries & Analyses
Chapter 7 Summary: “The Improvers”
Howe covers a pivotal moment in American history, focusing on the transition in leadership from the Founding Fathers to the next generation, the ethos of improvement, and the rise of John Quincy Adams as a key figure embodying the spirit of national development.
On July 4, 1826, America celebrated its 50th anniversary with the deaths of Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, signifying the end of an era and the passing of the torch to figures like John Quincy Adams. Adams’s presidency championed the philosophy of “improvement,” emphasizing both individual and national development. This period underscored the importance of representative democracy with a vision that the liberation from British rule was a means for Americans to contribute to the betterment of humankind.
John Quincy Adams, inheriting the legacy of his forebears, viewed his presidency as an opportunity to fulfill the nation’s promise. He advocated for internal improvements, such as the Erie Canal, and believed in the moral imperative of using the government to enhance national infrastructure and education. His stance on these issues was both a continuation of the Republican nationalism that emerged after the War of 1812 and a personal commitment to an ethos of improvement that was evident in both his private endeavors and his public policies.
However, Adams’s presidency was not without its challenges, particularly in terms of his conception of the presidential role and his effectiveness as a leader. His administration faced opposition from figures like John Randolph and Henry Clay and controversies such as the “corrupt bargain” accusation, which marred his presidency and haunted Clay for the rest of his life. Despite these challenges, Adams’s vision of national improvement through infrastructure development and education reforms left a lasting impact on the American political landscape.
The chapter also delves into the complexities of Adams’s personal and political life, including his intellectual pursuits, his efforts to maintain a non-partisan government, and his challenges in navigating the political arena of his time. It highlights the philosophical underpinnings of his policies, his dedication to public service, and his vision for America’s future.
Chapter 8 Summary: “Pursuing the Millennium”
Millennial fervor permeated early 19th-century America, reflecting a nation grappling with its destiny. This fervor wasn’t just a fringe phenomenon but was central to the American consciousness, influencing its politics, social movements, and religious life. The chapter explains the theological underpinnings of millennialism, the belief in a forthcoming thousand-year reign of Christ on Earth, which Christians interpreted in various ways. Postmillennialists believed that human efforts to reform society and spread Christianity would usher in the millennium, after which Christ would return. This optimistic view was prevalent among many American Protestants and was linked to the era’s reform movements, including temperance, abolitionism, and missionary work, reflecting a conviction in America’s mission to lead the world towards a glorious future. In contrast, premillennialism anticipated a period of dramatic divine intervention before the millennium, emphasizing the need for readiness for Christ’s imminent return. This view fostered a sense of urgency and sometimes led to the establishment of separatist religious communities aiming to live out their ideals in preparation for the end times.
The chapter showcases how these millennial visions influenced prominent Americans. John Quincy Adams, for example, saw the United States as playing a crucial role in the unfolding of God’s plan, linking national policy aims like the American System to the nation’s messianic destiny. Similarly, reformers like Lyman Beecher saw America as the beacon of moral and spiritual progress, crucial for ushering in the millennium.
The narrative also explores the impact of millennialism on communal experiments aiming to create heaven on Earth, such as the Shakers, who established celibate, communal societies in an attempt to live out their utopian ideals, and the Mormons, whose founder Joseph Smith received revelations that led to the formation of a new religious movement with its own millennial aspirations.
Moreover, the chapter discusses the global dimension of America’s millennial vision, particularly through the lens of figures like the Marquis de Lafayette, who acted as a bridge between America’s revolutionary ideals and the liberal movements in Europe. This global perspective underscored the belief in America’s exemplary role in the worldwide march towards democracy and freedom, even as it wrestled with internal contradictions like slavery and racial injustice, highlighted by movements like Nat Turner’s rebellion.
Millennial thought in early 19th-century America drove the nation’s self-image, its internal reforms, and its interactions with the wider world. The widespread embrace of millennialism underscored a unique blend of optimism and anxiety about America’s place in divine providence and the unfolding of history, reflecting a nation at a crossroads between its idealistic aspirations and the realities of its social and political life.
Chapter 9 Summary: “Andrew Jackson and His Age”
Andrew Jackson, mourning his wife Rachel’s death, assumed the presidency with bitterness towards his political enemies, whom he blamed for her demise. His inaugural period was marked by a refusal to adhere to customary protocols, reflecting his disdain for the outgoing administration and his personal grief. Jackson’s presidency maintained a strong leadership style, authoritarian instincts despite his democratic rhetoric, and a deep-seated sense of honor stemming from his frontier background. These traits influenced his political actions, notably in the genocidal Indian Removal policy.
Jackson’s stance on Indian Removal was driven by a belief in white supremacy and Manifest Destiny and led to the Indian Removal Act of 1830. This policy aimed to relocate Indigenous tribes west of the Mississippi, sparking significant opposition from various sectors of American society, including Christian missionaries, women’s groups, and political opponents. Despite the moral and legal challenges, including landmark Supreme Court cases, Jackson persisted with the removals, resulting in the forced migration of thousands of Indigenous people in what is now known as the Trail of Tears.
Internal improvements and economic policies under Jackson also reflected his complex views on governance. While he recognized the benefits of economic development and supported certain public works, Jackson vetoed the Maysville Road Bill and other internal improvement projects he deemed too locally focused or financially imprudent, advocating instead for state and private roles in such endeavors. His administration saw significant federal expenditure on internal improvements, albeit selectively, contributing to the era’s economic growth and expansion of American commerce.
Jackson’s foreign policy focused on expanding American trade and settling disputes to favor American interests. His administration negotiated commercial treaties and forcefully protected American commerce abroad, as seen in actions like the Sumatran expedition.
Throughout his presidency, Jackson’s policies underscored a commitment to sovereignty, economic independence, and territorial expansion while his governance style and political maneuvers laid the groundwork for the Democratic Party’s future direction. Despite his contributions to the nation’s development, Jackson’s legacy remains complex, particularly regarding his persecution of Indigenous people and his approach to federal power in economic development.
Chapter 10 Summary: “Battles Over Sovereignty”
Chapter 10 continues the discussion of key aspects of Jackson’s presidency. It highlights Jackson’s authoritarian use of presidential power, vetoing more bills than all his predecessors combined, and his battles with Congress. His belief in the sovereignty of the American people, with himself as their embodiment, led to a conflict with the Second Bank of the United States, seen as a war for national and popular sovereignty.
The chapter also addresses the Indian Removal as a justification for westward expansion, emphasizing the desire for cheap land over the welfare of Indigenous populations. It details Thomas Hart Benton’s advocacy for cheap land to accelerate Western settlement, which was in direct conflict with the Adams administration’s policy of using public land sales revenue for internal improvements or education.
The Nullification Crisis is a significant part of the chapter, outlining South Carolina’s attempt to nullify (or legally void) the federal government’s tariffs on cotton and other products in 1828 and 1832. In response, Jackson issued a proclamation asserting the federal government’s sovereignty over state law and made the Compromise Tariff of 1833. The crisis underscored deep-seated tensions between states’ rights and federal authority, foreshadowing the coming conflicts leading to the Civil War.
Throughout, the chapter portrays Jackson as a complex figure whose actions laid the groundwork for future debates over federalism, economic policy, states’ rights, and the rights of Indigenous people. The Nullification Crisis, in particular, is shown as a pivotal moment in American history, demonstrating the fragility of the Union and the challenges of balancing diverse regional interests.
Chapters 7-10 Analysis
The period covered in these chapters includes a shift towards American sovereignty, both in domestic policies and foreign relations. This shift relates to The Political and Social Challenges of Territorial Expansion, as the desire for more land directly impacted the lives of Indigenous nations and fueled the debate over slavery’s extension into new territories. Jackson’s policies on Indian Removal exemplify the moral and ethical contradictions of American expansionism. While advocating for the common man’s sovereignty, Jackson’s administration forcibly displaced thousands of Indigenous people, highlighting the discrepancies between democratic ideals and practices. For instance, the Trail of Tears starkly contradicted the nation’s professed values of freedom and democracy. Thousands of Indigenous peoples, primarily Cherokee, were forcibly displaced from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to territories west of the Mississippi River. The journey, marked by harsh conditions and inadequate provisions, resulted in the deaths of thousands due to disease, starvation, and exposure. This egregious violation of human rights and sovereignty epitomized the betrayal of Indigenous peoples and undermined America’s foundational principles of liberty, justice, and equality for all.
The millennial fervor of the era shows how The Rise of Religious and Social Movements influenced America’s national identity and policy directions. This fervor underpinned many of the period’s reform movements, including those aimed at temperance and abolition, seen as part of America’s divine mission. The religious zeal of the time, with its focus on moral improvement and societal perfection, fed into the broader discourse on slavery, encouraging a segment of the population to view abolition as a crucial step towards achieving a godly society. It also forwarded the question of gender equality, with Shakers allowing men and women to hold leadership positions.
Chapters 7-10 further unravel The Evolving Debate and Conflict over Slavery, particularly as the nation grapples with its rapid economic development and territorial expansion. The cotton boom and the push for improvements like the Erie Canal highlight the economic underpinnings of slavery, as the demand for labor grows with the expanding agricultural frontier. At the same time, the millennial aspirations and the moral reform movements place slavery at the center of a national moral crisis, questioning the compatibility of such an institution with America’s vision for itself as a beacon of freedom and righteousness. Like the Indian Removal policy, slavery revealed that white supremacy superseded values like freedom, individualism, and democracy, and that race determined which men were considered human and therefore deserving of these rights.
Moreover, the rapid advancements in infrastructure and territorial expansion of the early 19th century had significant environmental repercussions. The construction of the Erie Canal, for example, not only fostered economic growth and connected distant regions but also initiated widespread ecological changes, such as altering waterways and disrupting ecosystems. Similarly, Andrew Jackson’s Indian Removal policies facilitated agricultural expansion but led to environmental and cultural harm, clearing lands for cotton cultivation that resulted in deforestation, soil depletion, and biodiversity loss. The cotton industry’s growth exacerbated these issues, demonstrating the era’s unsustainable exploitation of natural resources.
The leadership of figures like John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson is central to navigating these overarching themes. Adams’s vision of national improvement and his support for education and infrastructure projects illustrate the era’s optimistic belief in progress. In contrast, Jackson’s populist approach and his firm stance on issues like the Nullification Crisis and the Bank War reflect the growing pains of a nation struggling to define its democracy in the face of rapid change and deepening divides.
