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60 pages 2 hours read

Pramoedya Ananta Toer

This Earth of Mankind

Fiction | Novel | Adult | Published in 1980

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Themes

Cultural Divisions in 19th Century Javanese Society

The most pervasive reality portrayed by Pramoedya Ananta Toer is the irrevocable striation of Javanese society into cultural groups. Apart from foreign travelers, merchants, and mercenaries, every person in Java belongs to one of three distinct groups: the Pure-Blood Dutch, the Mixed-Blood Indos (who have some verifiable Dutch heritage), and the Native Javanese. There is no possibility of moving from one group to another. This cultural rigidity is reinforced by Dutch law administered by European judges. Several times in the narrative, a Native person stands before a Dutch judge to point out the blatant inequity. In each case, the prosecutor or judge will say the court is for the Pure-Bloods. Thus, the Natives have no legal standing. Indos possess certain legal rights if they are acknowledged by their Pure-Blood parent. When Minke first meets Robert M., the latter presses him to say his last name. If Minke were an Indo with no last name rather than a Native, it would mean that he had a Dutch father who denied being so. Most would assume Minke is an Indo because of his dark skin, while his impeccable Dutch would argue against him being fully Native.

Consorting across racial lines during this era was condemned in several ways. Herman abandoned his wife in the Netherlands because of her alleged infidelity. Yet, when Maurits, the Dutch son of Herman, confronts him at Wonokromo, he says Herman has committed sins beyond adultery by consorting with a Native (his concubine Nyai) who is not Christian and brought “illegal” children into the world. After Herman’s death, Nyai discovers she has no legal recourse to prevent Maurits from claiming her property and businesses, despite Herman registering her as co-owner.

The English and then the Dutch colonized Indonesia in the 1600s and established cultural divisions by the late 19th Century. This left Native Javanese with no access to the ongoing technological, industrial revolution taking place around the world. The Dutch education system was reserved for Pure-Bloods and Indos; Minke is only able to study with the Dutch through a special dispensation. Even progressive Dutchmen, like Herbert de la Croix, criticize the Javanese for failing to seek parity with Europeans. Toer portrays the Dutch as oblivious to an important reality: Cultural divisions established by Europeans have prevented the Javanese from accessing education, financial stability, and means of travel. These divisions via cultural influence and colonial law forced the lowest Javanese class to continue living as they had when they were first occupied.

Entrenched Misogyny

While Javanese women were very much victims of the cultural divisions between classes, they also endured other challenges that had oppressed them long before the arrival of the Dutch. In Native Javanese society in 1898, women were considered the property of men—first their fathers, then their husbands. Nyai, whose childhood name was Sanikem, experienced this firsthand. By the time she was 14, her father had turned down several offers of marriage on her behalf, hoping to use her to further his career. He eventually barters her to Dutchman Herman Mellema, who takes her in as his concubine, permanently disgracing her. Sanikem, later calling herself Nyai, points out in a court of law that such treatment of women is nothing short of slavery.

In telling Minke how he must treat Annelies, Dr. Martinet warns him that he must treat her as Europeans treat their wives, not the way Javanese do. This implies that physical and emotional abuse of women by their husbands is a given in Javanese Native society, despite the hypocrisies of Dutch men of power (i.e., Herman, the Dutch judge and prosecutors). Maiko, a sex worker from Japan, was sold from one brothel owner to another across the Pacific Rim. When these men discovered Maiko had contracted a virulent form of syphilis, they responded by selling her for a lower price. Not until the Dutch judge hears her story does Maiko receive medical treatment. Maiko expresses remorse for infecting her customers, though selling her body was a matter of survival.

For their part, the women in the novel respond differently to the entrenched misogyny they face. Before Sanikem became Nyai, her mother pleaded with her husband not to sell their daughter, to no avail. Far from home, Maiko pins all her hopes on saving enough money to return to her boyfriend in Japan—though she intends to continue sex work to support him. Minke’s mother, a Native, accepts the orders of her husband and the immature posturing of her sons. However, she speaks with Minke at length, sharing her wisdom. Due to her initial relationship with Herman and her own strength, Nyai is the only woman able to rely on herself. She sets up businesses, forms alliances, and buys property in her own name—as problematic as this turns out to be. Her daughter Annelies is largely dependent on Minke, until she bids him farewell and moves past his ability to protect her. The novel’s ending centers on the resilience of this delicate girl entering a new world—in which entrenched misogyny will still be prevalent.

Allegiance to the Netherlands or Java

Throughout the novel, Minke struggles with his allegiance to the Netherlands (as the Dutch provided him with a life-changing education) and Java, the place of his birth. At the beginning of the narrative, Minke is clearly more comfortable with the Dutch world than that of the Javanese. He excels at his studies and is admired at his prep school. His excellent writing skills, for which he is constantly praised, are exercised in the Dutch language. Yet, Minke does not open his family’s letters, nor can he adequately write in Javanese or Malay, his languages of origin. He dresses as a European, even on the one occasion he goes to see his parents. He also keeps a photograph of the new Dutch queen and openly admits his adoration of her.

Against the backdrop of ever-increasing Dutch influence in Minke’s life (which borders on internalized racism), there are those who implore him not to forget that he is Javanese. When he must participate in his father’s installation as a bupati, Minke has the first of two lengthy conversations with his mother about where his allegiance should be. She reminds him of the Javanese principles she instilled in him from childhood. She also questions why he is so attracted to all things Dutch, pointing out that the Dutch consume the resources of Java. When dressing him for his wedding feast, Minke’s mother describes the importance of each element of his attire (as they are intimately tied to Javanese nobility). Listening to her explanations, Minke weeps.

As the story progresses, Minke continually encounters the unyielding customs and rules that reinforce his world’s Cultural Divisions. It is only through Dutch overlord Herbert’s intervention that he is able to resume his schooling and graduate with his class. Furthermore, the Dutch legal system forces Annelies to leave for Amsterdam—with Minke and Nyai unable to either prevent this or leave with her. Toer does not state where Minke’s allegiance ultimately lies, though Minke’s final speech is an apology to his mother for failing to save Annelies. The implication is that the Dutch have failed him, and in turn, he has failed the Javanese.

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