The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History

Drawing on ancient Greeks like Ptolemy and more recent Muslim geographers, Ibn Khaldun describes the basic geography of the world. The “Surrounding Sea” covers half of our spherical world (the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans in modern terminology, with the unknown North and South American continents assumed to be covered by the sea as well). It is natural to think of this western half of the world as “below” the eastern half, but that is technically wrong since gravity pulls everything to the center of the Earth. God has raised land in the eastern half of the world. The equator cuts across the middle of the eastern hemisphere, dividing this half of the world in half again: northeastern quarter and southeastern quarters of the globe. Both northern and southern regions contain land, although a vast amount of each (especially south of the equator) is wasteland or covered by branches of the sea.

The cultivated part of the world extends from the equator to 64ºN latitude and can be conceptually subdivided into seven zones. Most civilization exists in the third zone or higher (roughly North Africa and above). The angle of the rays of the sun and its varying latitude throughout the year explain this geographical difference. Ibn Khaldun carefully explains the movement and mathematics, using the conventional signs of the Zodiac to measure the latitude of the sun at different times of the year. The sun’s rays are too direct and hot near the equator to allow life to easily thrive. The climate north of 64ºN latitude is too cold and the amount of sunlight varies too much between winter and summer to easily generate life. However, Ibn Khaldun notes that direct experience has disproven philosophers’ assertions that life is impossible near the equator, or south of it, even if little land suitable for supporting civilization exists there.

A more temperate climate leads to a more temperate, well-balanced civilization and even more abundant natural minerals. The Maghrib, Syria, southern Europe, parts of India, and China all fall into this ideal band of the third through fifth zones. The Black people of the first two zones and the Slavic people of the northern two zones have more “primitive” homes, strange customs, intemperately spicy food, and in many ways, according to Ibn Khaldun, live like animals. Most are ignorant of “true” religion (Islam or pre-Islamic monotheistic faiths like Christianity). The seas surrounding the Arabian Peninsula on three sides, however, provide enough cool moisture to preserve the Arab people from the barbarism of others living at their latitude.

Ibn Khaldun dismisses attempts to explain the difference between groups based on supposed descent from the biblical Noah’s different sons (including dismissing the notion that Black skin came from Noah’s decision to curse his son Ham). Instead, the dark skin of those in the south and the pale whiteness of those in the far north result solely from the amount of sunlight in their intemperate climates.

Ibn Khaldun, accepting the contemporary stereotype of Black Africans as excitable and overly emotional, explains their cultural attitude as the physical effect of climate. Heat causes the animal spirit to expand, manifesting itself in joy or frantic energy. Regional variations cause regional differences. Egyptians also exhibit careless joy without planning for the next day due to the heat of their country, whereas the inland citizens of Fez in the Maghrib live in cool hills at the same latitude and are gloomy and excessively worried about the future.

Even in temperate zones, there are wastelands like the deserts of the Maghrib. Those who dwell in the deserts have considerably less food but still seem healthier than the urban population. The reason is that too much food and the moisture it contains disrupts the internal humors of the body, as can be seen in both animals and people—Greek and Arabic medicine posit that health stems from the balance of four humors in the body combining hot, cold, wet, and dry elements. Desert nomads therefore are both physically and mentally superior to city-dwellers. Spicy seasonings and wheat in particular disrupt the body, which is why city-dwellers in Spain (from whence Ibn Khaldun’s family came) are smarter than spice-loving people in the Maghrib’s cities. In times of famine, those who normally eat little prove themselves more resilient than those with plenty of food. Religious mystics also eat frugally for these reasons. In fact, Ibn Khaldun personally witnessed a mystic go over 40 days without eating and met two similar women whom experts verified had gone years without food.

God chooses some people to have supernatural gifts. He brings them spiritually to a higher realm when they seem to be in a trance and there teaches them. Signs to recognize true recipients of these gifts include their goodness, charity, chastity, devotion to religion, and ability to attract respect. God may also work miracles through these saints to confirm the person’s holiness and message, including allowing the saints to predict the miracle in advance. Although there is debate on the topic, the miracles of Sufi saints should be distinguished from the greater wonders of the prophets and prophecy. The greatest wonder of them all is the Qur’an, the scripture dictated directly by God and recorded by Muhammad.

Understanding prophecy requires understanding that all of creation is interconnected. People can perceive the outward, intelligible world. On a higher level, they can ruminate internally on it and intuit truths. On yet a higher plane, that of angelic life—which is still connected to the rest of creation—people can directly receive divine truths. The people blessed to reach this stage of perception are prophets. These should not be confused with soothsayers, who are inferior people who look at mere physical signs for clues and are deceived by devils. However, a person who is not a prophet but still advanced may have valid dream visions, since their spirit can go beyond the body in sleep. Many people seek methods for obtaining the power to tell the future, but most fail or are deceived by devils. God can grant knowledge, however, to whomever He wills.