Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals

Kant asserts that humans can influence events through their free wills. We can use “autonomous” and “free” interchangeably to describe the will because a rational will would have to be free to be self-legislating. As such, a will can only attain true freedom when it is pursuing morality. This establishes morality as a byproduct of freedom. Kant writes, “For since morality serves as a law for us only as for rational beings, it must hold for all rational beings as well, and as it must be derived solely from the property of freedom, freedom must also be proved as a property of the will of all rational beings [...]” (57, 4:448). He states a free will would have to follow the categorical imperative since it relies on maxims that encourage reason. Kant concedes that this might be difficult to conclusively prove but says we can use a priori cognition to realize we are in control of our own reason. He wants to use a positive conception of freedom in his discussion, meaning he will refer to freedom to act in a certain way.

Kant then asks why free-willed rational beings would agree to subject themselves to the categorical imperative. There is no room for self interest in the kingdom of ends, and he questions whether humans can ever truly separate themselves from their instincts. Kant concedes certain ideas of morality appear to yield circular arguments. We require morality to experience free will, so it can be difficult to fully separate the two. Kant offers a remedy by separating “appearances” and “things in themselves” (60, 4:451). Our everyday lives are governed by appearances: While we may believe we are seeing objects as things in themselves, our idea of them comes from our understanding of how they affect us. This allows us to distinguish between a “world of sense” and a “world of understanding” (60, 4:451). A world of understanding is unchanged regardless of our perception of it. Reason allows us to note the difference between these two worlds and helps us understand that we possess freedom regardless of changes occurring in the world of sense. As rational beings, we understand we are bound by natural laws that have a foundation in the realm of reason. We don’t need to think about why we are free, we know that we are via reason. Thus, Kant demonstrates that freedom and morality are connected to reason, not to each other.

Living in an intelligible world invites people to fully capitalize on their free wills. Being ruled by intelligence signifies an individual’s actions will conform with free will. Conversely, participants in a world of sense are only able to react to laws of nature. Since residents of the sensible world are reduced to using their free wills in a constant loop of cause and effect, they are only able to react to different situations, thereby working toward a specific end and not an end in itself. An ideal world is that which combines elements of the intelligible and the sensible—our rational faculties allow us to distinguish between seeming and being, thus allowing us to apply the categorical imperative to view each other as ends in themselves. Since we are all free to make these choices, this suggests we can each actively work to be a better person.

This proves the categorical imperative is possible. If we lived in a world solely governed by intelligence, our wills would automatically conform to the categorical imperative. Conversely, if we lived in a world purely governed by sense, we would still understand a priori that following the categorical imperative is the right thing to do. This is because we would contain our capacity for reason despite the conditions of the world. Our world is a mixture of both, meaning we apply the categorical imperative out of duty to ourselves and others.

Kant concludes by noting it is important to understand that reason itself does not show we are intrinsically free because we may have difficulty looking past our senses. However, it does demonstrate freedom is justified by our existence as ends in themselves. At this point in Kant’s inquiry, freedom connects reason, morality, and the categorical imperative. Reason also allows us to seek what makes certain ideas possible. This makes it difficult to identify its core characteristics because in an ideal world we all experience unconditional freedom. Thus, at this point in our inquiry, we must rely on our a priori understanding that we are free.