The Battle of Maldon

Lines 1-10

The first line of “The Battle of Maldon” is a broken fragment, the beginning of the text lost to history. At the beginning of the available text, Byrhtnoth appears. Byrhtnoth, an earl, tells his soldiers to let their horses go, chase them away, and then proceed courageously and mindfully. Where the soldiers are moving to is left unstated as yet—but the implication is that they are heading into danger, and thus must protect their mounts. In a moving scene, the kinsman of one of Byrhtnoth’s vassals lets his beloved hawk fly away to the woods. The text makes it clear that freeing his hawk is a preparatory sacrifice: "a gesture one could recognize: / the young warrior did not wish to waver at war" (Lines 8-9)—the man is literally putting aside the pleasures of peace, like hawking, to show that he was ready to pick up his weapons and fight.

Lines 11-24

Readers then meet another Anglo-Saxon warrior: Eadric, who carries his spear and marches forth. The author asserts Eadric’s loyalty and good intentions to fulfill his vow of fighting for his lord, Byrhtnoth. As Eadric, Offa, and the other soldiers are preparing for battle and marching, we get a sense of why they feel such deep-seated loyalty to their lord. In a scene that is clearly meant to be a lesson in excellent leadership, Byrhtnoth rides around giving words of encouragement to his soldiers and telling them how to hold the line of defense, where they should stand, and how to grip their shields properly—he will be in the thick of fighting with them, and clearly cares for their preparedness. Byrhtnoth tells them not to fear, and when he feels he has encouraged his men enough, he gets off of his horse where some of his most faithful guards stand.

Lines 25-41

A Viking herald stands on the shore calling out a message to Byrhtnoth and his men from their adversaries, the Vikings (or as they’re referred to by the herald, the “brim-sailors” (Line 27)). Immediately, the Vikings are characterized as morally inferior to the defending Anglo-Saxon forces: While Byrhtnoth's army fights for their king and out of loyalty, the Vikings are mostly interested in plundering gold. To that end, the Viking herald informs Byrhtnoth that there is no need to fight—the Vikings can be bought off with “rings” (Line 31) or other treasure, in exchange for safety and protection from a “storm of spears” (Line 32). The herald tries to convince Byrhtnoth that by paying off the Vikings, he would be saving his people: He would essentially “ransom” (Line 37) his men from bloodshed. If Byrhtnoth pays the Vikings for a “truce” (Line 39), the Vikings will go back to their ships to “sail away” (Line 41) in peace.

Lines 42-61

Raising his shield and waving his spear in the air, the “angry and resolute” Byrhtnoth (Line 44) throws the Vikings' proposal back in their face. His response plays to the men around him—another example of his leadership style—trash-talking that instead of paying the Vikings with rings and treasure, his men will pay them with their spears. As we hear Byrhtnoth tell the Viking herald that Byrhtnoth and his troops will be waiting for the Vikings and ready to fight, we can almost imagine his men cheering behind him. Byrhtnoth clarifies the moral positions for war that the poem is interested in: The Anglo-Saxons are there to defend their home, the “country of Æthelred” (Line 53), while the Vikings are “heathens” (Line 54). Byrhtnoth ends by taunting the Vikings again: It would be a shame to let them leave without a fight since they have come this far to see the people of Æthelred.

Lines 62-73

Byrhtnoth orders his troops to advance; however, because there is a river—“Pante’s stream” (Line 68)—separating them, neither the earl’s men nor the Vikings are able to confront one another: The “flood […] flowing after the ebb-tide” (Line 64) keeps them apart. The poem paints a dramatic tableau of two armies poised for battle, waiting for the tide to recede, by invoking the way time dilates during the tense moment: " It seemed to them too long" (Line 66). Right now all they can do is kill those within range of “the showering of arrows” (Line 71). As the tide recedes, the Vikings, or “float-men” (Line 72), prepare to attack.

Lines 74-83

Byrhtnoth, the “shelter of heroes” (Line 74), commands his men to hold and protect the bridge. Various soldiers defending the bridge are then introduced to readers, in a list of heroes that will be familiar to readers of other epics, such as Homer's Iliad. Wulfstan, “the son of Ceola” (76), is the first to shoot down a Viking soldier daring to step onto the bridge. Ælfhere and Maccus also assist in defending the bridge as well for “as long as they were allowed to wield their weapons” (Line 83). They commit themselves to fight until they cannot fight anymore.

Lines 84-95

In contrast to the loyalty, bravery, and steadfastness the poem ascribes to the bridge defenders, it shows us that the Vikings follow no such warrior code. Instead, the Vikings attempt to “use guile” (Line 86) to get across the bridge, asking for “free passage” (Line 87) over the bridge. In a telling phrase, the poem calls the Vikings bargaining here " the hated guests" (Line 86)—by asking for safe passage, the Vikings are invoking the typically sacred bond of guest right, the unwritten law that one had an obligation to protect the safety of one's guests. Byrhtnoth is put in a terrible position: Declining guest right is a cultural taboo, but the circumstances seem to demand it. Too proud to go against his moral principles, Byrhtnoth agrees. As a result, he concedes “too much land to those hated people” (Line 90). One of Byrhtnoth’s warriors, identified as “Byrhthelm’s son” (Line 92), goads the Vikings on, shouting at them to come and fight now that the way is open. Introducing Christianity into the poem for the first time, this warrior announces that it is “God alone” (Line 94) who knows who will be the winner of the battle in the end.

Lines 96-110

The Vikings, dehumanized as “slaughter-wolves” (Line 96)—a comparison that purposefully makes them into a bestial other, wade “across the Pante” (Line 97), carrying shields made of “yellow linden” wood (Line 99). Seeing the Vikings advance and preparing for the oncoming onslaught, Byrhtnoth orders his soldiers to create a wall with their shields and to “hold fast against their foes” (Line 103). The speaker prophetically claims that the time is nearing when those who will fall will die in the ensuing battle. Even the earth senses the battle about to erupt: Ravens and eagles circle in the air and an “uproar was on the earth” (Line 107). The image combines the symbolism of an omen (the flight of birds was often interpreted as predictive) and the naturalism of a seasoned observer—the eagles circle not simply to foretell bloodshed, but also because they are eager to feast on the dead bodies that will soon appear.

Lines 111-121

The speaker begins to tally the casualties on both sides of the battle. On Byrhtnoth’s side, Vikings mortally wound his nephew Wulfmær. However, even in death, Wulfmær retains his agency: The Vikings killed him, but he is “choosing a slaughter-rest” (Line 13). In response to Wulfmær’s death, Eadweard strikes down a gallant Viking warrior “so that a fated champion fell down at his feet” (Line 119). Byrhtnoth thanks Eadweard for this service “lord to chamberlain” (Line 121). These lines offer a contrast between the different hierarchies of the Vikings and the Anglo-Saxons. The poem doesn't distinguish the Vikings by ranks—they are mostly an indistinguishable mass—but it does pick out the man Eadweard kills as more formidable than the rest, a champion. Conversely, even in the heat of battle, neither Byrhtnoth nor Eadweard forgets their liege-vassal connection: The poem gives us their titles here to underscore the organized civilization they represent for the poem's speaker.

Lines 122-129

All of the young warriors in battle are eager to fight, “stiff-minded” (Line 122) in their resolve to defend their lord. Their thoughts are focused on whom they can “soonest conquer / with their swords” (Lines 124-125). All that surrounds the warriors is “Slaughter” (Line 126), but all of the soldiers remain “steadfast” (Line 127)—an ironic description, given the eventual desertions Byrhtnoth's forces will sustain. Byrhtnoth praises all of his men, telling all of his soldiers wishing to prove themselves and gain glory against the Vikings/Danes to keep their thoughts focused on the “scrum” (Line 128). “Scrum” refers to an unorganized group of people or things, which is exactly what the battle would most likely look like. Byrhtnoth encourages his men to keep their thoughts on the battle at hand.

Lines 130-142

The poem now descends into the heart of the hand-to-hand, narrating the action surrounding Byrhtnoth blow by blow. The description is visceral and highly visual. A Viking “stern in war” (Line 130) comes at Byrhtnoth with his weapon raised and his shield up. Byrhtnoth faces this “churl” (Line 132), a word that at the time only meant a member of the lower-class peasantry. The battle has become an equalizer of rank: A peasant comes face to face with an earl without showing respect. The Viking throws a spear at Byrhtnoth, wounding “the lord of warriors” (Line 135). Doing some battlefield first aid, Byrhtnoth hits the spear with his shield, dislodging it from his body. Angry at being wounded, Byrhtnoth retaliates: Though Byrhtnoth is described as “Aged” (Line 140), he is strong enough to throw his spear through the neck of his adversary.

Lines 143-158

Byrhtnoth stabs yet another Viking with his spear, so hard that the “poisonous point” (Line 145) of the spear impales his heart. Byrhtnoth laughs with happiness and thanks “the Measurer” (Line 147), or God, for his success in battle. This prayer plays into the poem's theme of contrasting the moral codes of the two sides in the battle: The pious Anglo-Saxons, unlike the pagan Vikings, believe that they owe any successes to the Christian God, which in the poem makes the clear side to root for. Byrhtnoth’s actions might be just as gruesome as those of the Vikings, but because he fights for the right reasons, the poem paints his killing spree as noble and admirable. The earl's fighting spirit inspires his soldiers: One takes the weapon thrown at Byrhtnoth and throws it right back at the Viking who threw it, causing the Viking “who had laid his lord / previously onto the earth” (Line 157-158) to be “wounded sorely” (Line 158).

Lines 159-171

In describing Byrhtnoth's fall, the poem slows time down, allowing its audience to linger in the moment and echoing the earlier description of soldiers feeling time drag as they wait for battle on either side of a river. Unlike other Anglo-Saxon warriors, who die instantly from one Viking blow, Byrhtnoth is only brought down in stages: first, he was hit by a spear; now, he has fallen to the ground—but he is still going, in a sequence that makes the earl appear almost superhuman in his ability to keep fighting. As a Viking tries “to carry off the rings of the warrior” (Line 160) that is prone, Byrhtnoth, takes his sword and stabs the Viking coming towards him “in the byrnie” (Line 163), or chain mail. Just then, another Viking, or “sail-man” (Line 164) wounds Byrhtnoth's sword arm, prompting Byrhtnoth to drop his “golden-hilted sword” (166). Having lost the ability to physically be a warrior, Byrhtnoth nevertheless holds onto his morale-boosting leadership abilities: He encourages the soldiers around him to keep fighting and “to go forth as good comrades” (Line 170). The poem is eager to hold up the nearly dead earl as a hallmark of lordly valor, which will provide a stark contrast to the Anglo-Saxon deserters we will meet shortly.

Lines 172-184

Byrhtnoth dies in a manner that replicates the traditional Christian good death, as prescribed at the time: He does not flinch from dying and invokes his faith in his last moments, praying to the “Wielder of peoples” (Line 173) and the “mid Measurer” (Line 175)—terms that ascribe to the Christian God omnipotence and omniscience. The poem shows its audience the correct way to accept the end of one's life, even one cut short: Byrhtnoth thanks God for all of the joys he has experienced in life, and asks that his spirit can rest in Him. He asks God that the Vikings, the “hell-harmers” (Line 180) not be permitted or given the chance to injure his soul. After praying, Byrhtnoth is killed by the Vikings.

Lines 185-201

The Anglo-Saxon line weakens after Byrhtnoth's death—without a capable commander to lead them, young soldiers forget the boasting they had been doing before the fighting and run off into the forest. The poem specifically names the three sons of Odda as the first to flee: Godric, Godwine, and Godwig. Disdainfully calling them “spineless” (Line 185), the poem denounces Godric for taking Byrhtnoth’s horse, a steed bedecked in livery which Godric has no right to display since he has just abandoned Byrhtnoth, a lord who had always supported him. All of the retreating soldiers have forgotten everything that Byrhtnoth stood for, desperate to save themselves rather than defend their country, honor, and king. A man named Offa had predicted this to Byrhtnoth, telling him that there were many soldiers who were talking proudly and boastfully who would not remain so when the battle raged.

Lines 202-208

All of the Anglo-Saxon soldiers see that Byrhtnoth, “Æthelred’s earl” (Line 203), has fallen. But despite the desertions that weaken Anglo-Saxon forces, the poem insists that most warriors have internalized Byrhtnoth's message of stalwartness. Struck by the sight of his dead body, “proud thanes” (Line 205) and soldiers who are “uncowardly” (Line 206) go forward in battle, hoping to either avenge their fallen leader or die trying.

Lines 209-229

The poem now crafts Byrhtnoth's legacy, one that rests on his skills as a leader and commander that we saw earlier in the poem. Now that he is gone, there is a leadership vacuum. However, instead of trying to claim power, Byrhtnoth's loyal vassals channel the earl in spurring the soldiers on. The poem argues that the advantages the moral code of honor that the Anglo-Saxons follow is that it perpetuates their culture from one generation to the next. It is significant that the first man to pick up where Byrhtnoth left off, Ælfwine, is identified as the “son of Ælfric” (Line 209)—he is a young man who picks up the torch of the previous generation by encouraging other warriors to stay and fight. In keeping with this theme of continuity, the poem is careful to tell the audience that the new would-be leader is not from peasant stock, but from a “great family in Mercia” (Line 217), one of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in Britain. He may be a new standard-bearer, but he preserves the idea of hierarchy.

Lines 230-243

The next man to buck up the Anglo-Saxons is Offa, the wise older man who, as Byrhtnoth's confidant, predicted that the braggadocio of some of Byrhtnoth's young soldiers at table would not translate into bravery on the field. Offa's main job is to do damage control: Some soldiers, who, seeing the livery on Byrhtnoth’s horse, thought that it was Byrhtnoth himself fleeing—as a result, the soldiers on the field “are broken up” (Line 241) and “the shield-wall is shattered” (Line 242). Offa excoriates the cowardly Godric, declares the need for all of the soldiers to encourage one another, and to fight.

Lines 244-254

Picking up where Offa left off is Leofsunu. The poem describes him holding up his shield “as shelter” (Line 245)—an important description that echoes an epithet the poem earlier applied to Byrhtnoth, called "the shelter of heroes" (Line 74). The repetition connects Leofsunu and the lord whom he promises to avenge. Like Ælfwine, Leofsunu comes from elsewhere—in this case, from the “steadfast men of Sturmere” (Line 249)—but unlike Ælfwine, Leofsunu is not of noble blood, nor is he a lord's adviser like Offa. Leofsunu confirms his status as a loyal vassal rather than a claimant for Byrhtnoth's position when he declares that will not “travel lordless home / turned from the war” (Lines 251-52)—he wants to serve a new winning lord.

Lines 255-264

Continuing the poem's descending order of speaker hierarchy, the next man to give a rousing speech is Dunnere, a “humble churl” (Line 256). By following strict social rank in this way, the poem creates the sense that Byrhtnoth's army is passing morale from higher to lower ranking soldiers—just as they would orders. Each speaker is less likely to stick around than the last, being increasingly less bound to warrior codes of honor. Nevertheless, the poem shows us, all of them are equally committed to Byrhtnoth's cause and to the man himself—an idealized vision of an army. Just as Leofsunu does, Dunnere urges all of his fellow Anglo-Saxon soldiers to avenge Byrhtnoth. The soldiers must press forward and cannot cower at the Vikings’ onslaught if they wish to gain vengeance for their lord’s death. They cannot fear for their own lives if they are to achieve their goal. The soldiers, rallied by the words of Leofsunu and Dunnere and unafraid of dying, surge forth. They fight bravely and fiercely while praying to God that they be permitted to avenge their fallen earl and wreak havoc on the Vikings.

Lines 265-272

Readers are then introduced to the most morally dubious member of the Anglo-Saxon forces: Æscferth, a “hostage” (Line 265) from “sturdy stock from Northumbria” (Line 266), another Anglo-Saxon kingdom, who is “Ecglaf’s son” (Line 266). Æscferth has been sent as a hostage to ensure a peace treaty—the idea being that Northumbria would be less inclined to go to war with Wessex knowing that one of its high ranking nobles would be immediately killed as a result. Hostages like the poem's Æscferth were always suspect: Though often raised in captivity, they were never fully trusted and assumed to have flexible allegiance. Here, however, even this potentially traitorous man fights valiantly alongside Byrhtnoth’s men. He shoots arrows one after another and “sometimes he skewered a warrior” (Line 269).

Lines 273-279

“Eadweard the tall” (Line 273), Byrhtnoth's chamberlain, then reenters the epic battle “at the van” (Line 273), or the broken back line of soldiers. His reappearance is another way to imply some kind of line of succession to the control of the army. Though new men have been stepping up as possible leaders who can echo Byrhtnoth's words, Eadweard represents the continuity to the leadership structure. Fittingly, rather than simply giving another speech about courage and vengeance, Eadweard executes an incredible feat: He breaks through “the Viking shield-wall” (Line 277), a seemingly impregnable defense strategy of interlinked shields. But Eadweard cannot truly be Byrhtnoth successor: That would break with the poem's theme of the younger generation taking over for their elders. Eadweard “worthily avenged his treasure-giver” (Line 278) before he himself is killed.

Lines 280-294

With Eadweard, the speeches are done and the poem returns to the fighting once more. An Anglo-Saxon soldier named Ætheric leads others in splitting and splintering “the curved shields” (Line 283) of the Vikings—ostensibly those that Eadweard has just broken through. The Anglo-Saxons fight so rigorously that the chain mail they wear “sang out / a certain terror-song” (Lines 285-286) as the metal is hit over and over again. In the battle, Offa strikes down a Viking and is subsequently killed. Interestingly, once again Offa has a moment of prescient prophecy. Just as earlier he had predicted the deserters, now Offa's death fulfills the promise he had made to Byrhtnoth to either ride home together or both die fighting. True to his word, Offa “lay like a true thane close to his lord” (Line 294).

Lines 295-303

Unlike the highly individualized Anglo-Saxons, the Vikings continue being a homogenous, indistinguishable group whose behavior is barbaric. They are “enraged in the fight” (Line 296), unlike the Anglo-Saxons, who do all the same things, but in the poem are given positive motivations and thus are meant to come across as acting for the greater good. Interestingly, because the poem describes so vividly the violence that the Anglo-Saxons inflict on the Vikings in the service of portraying their physical prowess, it is the Anglo-Saxons who do most of the poem's more gruesome butchery. For instance, Wystan kills three Viking troops. The speaker suddenly introduces a metaphor for the fighting: The battlefield becomes describes “a stern moot” (Line 300). In Anglo-Saxon context, a “moot” referred to a meeting/gathering or assembly often involving debate. In this particular assembly of “warriors perishing” (Line 302) and “warriors wearied by wounds” (Line 303), the debate is a matter of action rather than words—unlike earlier in the poem, when the battle was interrupted for rousing speeches by several men.

Lines 304-319

Two brothers named Oswold and Eadwold on the Anglo-Saxon side continue to encourage their comrades to persevere against the Vikings and keep fighting.

Bryhtwold, “an old comrade” (Line 310), lifts his shield and spear and shouts words of inspiration to the soldiers around him. He tells the Anglo-Saxons that their minds need to remain strong and sharp even when they feel themselves losing energy and power. They need to maintain their drive and resolve. Anyone who runs away and retreats will regret that decision for as long as they live. Bryhtwold expresses his own intention to die beside the body of his fallen leader Byrhtnoth.

Lines 320-325

Another soldier named Godric, “Æthelgar’s son” (Line 320), also seeks to rally his fellow soldiers. The speaker describes him as being “first in that crowd” (Line 323) to go into the Viking fray, “hewing and maiming” (Line 324) as many of the enemy as he can until he is fatally wounded. The speaker makes sure to let readers know that this is not the same cowardly Godric who jumped on Byrhtnoth’s horse to flee from battle.