Once Were Warriors

New Zealand’s colonial history is one inscribed with the many efforts of the British Crown and colonial settlers to dispossess the Māori of their land, and cultural identity, socioeconomic growth and stability, and instill a structure of British assimilation and exploitation. Although the exact date that colonialism started is disputed, the Treaty of Waitangi is typically referred to as the formal starting point. Signed in 1840, the treaty was an agreement between several Māori chiefs and the British Crown to establish a framework for their relationship and to ensure the recognition and respect of Māori rights. The treaty was based on four general points: partnership (wherein Māori and the British Crown would cooperate and share in decision-making), protection of Māori interests (wherein Māori had rights to ownership of lands, forests, fisheries, and other resources, as well as the same rights and privileges as other New Zealand citizens), governance (wherein the British Crown could establish a system of governance while the Māori retained control and authority over their own affairs, customs, and traditional practices), and equality in treatment.

The documents of this treaty were issued in two languages, English and te reo Māori, but the translated texts had stark differences: the English text emphasized the authority and sovereignty of the Crown, while the te reo text emphasized the Māori authority. From then on and as European settlement expanded, tensions between Māori and settlers rose over land disputes, cultural clashes, and differing understandings of the treaty. Land confiscations, wars, and the erosion of Māori autonomy resulted from these conflicts, the most significant being the New Zealand Wars which took place between 1845 and 1872 and involved armed clashes between Māori clans and the British Crown.

At the turn of the 20th century, the negative effects of colonization for Māori people, though varied across regions and communities, were significant. The New Zealand government, through various mechanisms such as the Native Land Court (which converted collectively-owned land into freehold land), implemented policies that resulted in the loss of ancestral lands for many Māori communities. This impacted their resource management and community cohesion. Restricted access to resources hindered economic development and bolstered health and employment rate disparities. Education levels were at an all-time low, with assimilation practices actively working to suppress te reo and Māori culture in schools. Teachers often punished children for speaking in their native language in classrooms, and no allowance was given to perform cultural practices. The Māori identity eroded as a result, and as more Māori moved to the cities, a disconnection from traditional knowledge and cultural identity occurred. In Once Were Soldiers, Beth and her family feel disconnected from their Māori heritage until they learn from the elders in their clan.

Despite these societal boundaries, however, the mid-20th century witnessed a resurgence of Māori culture—a revitalization of language, customs, art, and traditions—as Māori communities recognized the need to reclaim their cultural identity, assert their legal rights, and resist assimilation. Led by Māori activists and movements like the Kōhanga Reo (which aimed to create immersive Māori language environments for young children), there was and continues to be a push to reassert cultural pillars of Māori communities within society, such as having maraes (traditional meeting grounds) and governance structures to re-establish iwi (tribe) authority and incorporating Māori customs and protocols in public events and spaces. The so-called “Māori cultural renaissance,” however, has not been without its challenges, as historical grievances have yet to be settled and poverty, health inequalities, justice system disparities, and cultural recognition still remains to be fully addressed. Nevertheless, the latter part of the 20th century saw Māori resilience, determination, ingenuity, and hope. Duff analyzed and wrote about these issues as a journalist. In his book, Māori: The Crisis and the Challenge (1993) he speaks of Māoridom, its failures in leadership and community self-enablement, as well as the apathy in New Zealand about addressing the injustices of the past. His fictional works likewise often discuss Māori experiences and livelihoods.