How Europe Underdeveloped Africa

What Is Development?

Chapter 1 begins by defining development. Historically, development has referred to the increased ability of social groups to guard their independence and infringe upon the freedom of others. The term is now used exclusively in an economic sense to describe how well a society deals with the environment through its understanding of science and development of technology. Developments in science and technology, however, lead not only to increases in production but also to societal changes. In many parts of the world, specialization and the division of labor helped spur the development of political states, the unequal distribution of goods, and the emergence of social codes to govern the behavior of different groups.

Karl Marx divided European development into four stages: communalism, slavery, feudalism, and capitalism. The change from one mode of production to another occurred when existing social relations could no longer effectively promote advance. Violence sometimes accompanied these revolutionary shifts. Not all societies, however, followed Europe’s pattern of development. Different societies developed at different rates. Environmental factors also play a role in development, as does the superstructure of human society, defined by Rodney as “social relations, forms of government, patterns of behavior, and systems of belief” (9), all of which are interrelated. Capitalism initially increased the well-being of large segments of the European population. This is no longer the case because the quest for profits conflicts with the well-being of the masses. Capitalism leads to racism, waste, and poverty. Capitalism also promotes imperialism to the detriment of less developed societies.

Rodney uses concrete examples to explain and support his claims. For instance, he traces China’s development over several millennia to broaden the reader’s understanding of patterns of development. His approach is comparative. Like Europe, China entered a communal phase when its inhabitants discovered new food sources, developed farming communities, and created stone tools. China’s economic capacity vastly expanded by the 7th century. In addition to growing more food, it developed a vibrant manufacturing sector, producing silks, ships, scientific tools, and other goods. Instead of individual families performing an array of tasks to survive, labor became more specialized. A political state emerged (the Tang Dynasty), replacing small, self-governing units. In short, China moved from one mode of production (communalism) to another (feudalism), following a similar trajectory as Europe. Unlike Europe, however, China never became capitalist because its superstructure led it down a different path. The Chinese held religious, educational, and bureaucratic qualifications in high esteem. State officials governed the people rather than landlords on feudal estates. In addition, there were greater egalitarian tendencies in China than in Europe, with the state owning much of the land. As Rodney observes, Europe was a more dynamic place where “the elements of change were not stifled by the weight of a state bureaucracy” (10). Europe’s shift to capitalism drove trade and imperialism, and ultimately led to the colonialization of Africa.

What Is Underdevelopment?

Rodney devotes the second part of Chapter 1 to underdevelopment. He points to the comparative nature of the term. Africa, Asia, and Latin America, for example, are underdeveloped relative to Europe and North America. Similarly, one can compare a country or region’s current state of development to its past development. In contrast to other scholars, Rodney offers a broad definition of underdevelopment. For him, the term refers not just to economic inequality but also to the exploitation of less developed countries by developed nations. Rodney argues that underdevelopment is the product of exploitation by capitalist, imperialist, and colonialist systems. Colonizing powers import surplus resources from developing countries, depriving these societies of their natural resources and labor.

Chapter 1 introduces several themes that are central to Rodney’s book. Central among these are the differences between developed and underdeveloped nations. The per-capita income of developed countries is much higher than that of underdeveloped nations. Developed countries are industrialized and getting richer, while underdeveloped countries are stagnant or have slow growth rates. Developed countries provide social services that promote well-being and happiness, such as health care. By contrast, social services are extremely limited or entirely lacking in underdeveloped countries. Developed countries have an abundance of skilled labor, whereas underdeveloped nations lack qualified personnel, such as engineers, teachers, and doctors. Governments in developed countries function more efficiently than those of underdeveloped countries, which tend to have bloated administrations that stifle rather than produce national wealth.

Rodney cites statistics to support his claims. He organizes some of his data in list form, making it clear and impactful. For example, he calls attention to the wage gap by comparing the annual per-capita income of different countries. The United States tops the list at $3,578, while the Congo brings up the rear at $52 (19). Rodney uses statistics to similar ends in his discussion of the indicators of development. Key among these is the amount of steel used by different countries. Developed countries use far more steel than underdeveloped countries. On one end of the scale are the US and Sweden, which consume 685 kg and 623 kg of steel per person, respectively. On the other end are Zambia (10 kg), East Africa (8 kg), and Ethiopia (2 kg) (20). Statistics on childhood mortality rates underscore the development gap. For every 1,000 children born in Sierra Leone, 160 die before their first birthday. By contrast, only 12 children out of every 1,000 die before the age of one in the United Kingdom. In Holland, that number is 18 (21). The shortage of doctors contributes to Africa’s high childhood mortality rates. In Niger, there is one doctor for every 56,140 people. In Chad, it is one doctor for 73,460 people. Parts of North Africa fare somewhat better. In Tunisia, for instance, there is one doctor for every 8,320 people (21).

Rodney presents Africa as a paradigmatic example of underdevelopment. African economies are stagnant. Moreover, most Africans lack access to basic goods and services. Paradoxically, the continent is rich in natural resources:

The United Nations Survey of Economic Conditions in Africa up to 1964 had this to say about the continent’s natural resources: Africa is well endowed with mineral and primary energy resources. With an estimated 9 percent of the world’s population, the region accounts for approximately 28 percent of the total value of world mineral production and 6 percent of its crude petroleum output. In recent years, its share of the latter is increasing. Of sixteen important metallic and non-metallic minerals, the share of Africa in ten varies from 22 to 95 percent of the world production (24).

Some economists explain the paradox of African underdevelopment in biblical terms, arguing that it is ordained by God. Others believe that people in developed countries are innately superior to those in underdeveloped countries. Subjugated people often accept these racist claims. By contrast, Rodney blames African underdevelopment on Europe’s imperialistic, exploitative trade practices and on colonialism, which gave Europeans ownership of Africa’s natural resources. Foreign investment in the form of loans also crippled African nations, which were forced to direct funds outward to repay their debts. Trade, colonial domination, and capitalistic investment drew Africa into the capitalist market in ways that were demonstrably disadvantageous to Africans. The Christian church, an instrument of cultural penetration and dominance, reinforced Africa’s dependence on Europe, as did European educational institutions and the colonial state apparatus. While Europe caused African underdevelopment, it is up to Africans to promote change: “Every African has a responsibility to understand the system and work for its overthrow” (34).