logo

46 pages 1 hour read

B. F. Skinner

Beyond Freedom and Dignity

Nonfiction | Book | Adult | Published in 1971

A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.

Background

Philosophical Context: Determinism

Beyond Freedom and Dignity assumes a determinist philosophical perspective. Although determinism—or causal determinism—has been demonstrated in ancient thinking, the concept was formalized in the 1700s. Determinism holds that every occurrence is caused by the combined influence of the environment, including the laws of nature and antecedent phenomena. By its definition, determinism completely voids the concept of free will, which is the idea that humans can act spontaneously and autonomously. (Hoefer, Carl. “Causal Determinism.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2023.)

The scientific community has not yet reached a consensus as to whether the known universe is deterministic. However, numerous scientists from various branches of science have publicly supported the concept. Some of the most prominent determinists include Albert Einstein, Max Planck, Sigmund Freud, Friedrich Nietzsche, Stephen Hawking, Neil DeGrasse Tyson, Brian Greene, and Robert Sapolsky. Sapolsky is one of the most prominent supporters of determinism as it relates to human behavior. He authored Determined: A Science of Life Without Free Will (2023), in which he uses an interdisciplinary and holistic approach to argue in favor of determinism and free will.

Sapolsky’s views are similar to Skinner’s; he believes that free will (or autonomous man) is illusory, that the reliance on free will has led to numerous social ills, and that the acceptance of determinism would inspire positive changes. However, the methods and content of Sapolsky’s text vary drastically from Skinner’s. While Skinner approaches the topic primarily from a psychological perspective, Sapolsky draws from medical, physical, psychological, social, and quantum sciences to form his argument. Despite the popularity of determinism, it remains a highly controversial and contested philosophy.

Scientific Context: Behaviorism

Behaviorism is dependent on determinism: If everything is determined, that means that human behavior, too, is based on environmental and antecedent conditions. The term “behaviorism” refers to both an attitude and a doctrine. For the purposes of this guide, the following material will discuss behaviorism as a doctrine.

Behaviorism is a psychological doctrine, or a method of performing behavioral science. It centers on the behavior of individuals rather than groups, societies, or cultures. The doctrine requires behavioral evidence to support psychological hypotheses, and it does not consider internal states, such as feelings or thoughts, as relevant. Of the three main types of behaviorism—methodological, analytical, and psychological—Beyond Freedom and Dignity primarily utilizes the latter. Psychological behaviorism analyzes the behavior of humans and other animals with regard to environmental and antecedent circumstances, including behavioral reinforcement, physical stimuli, personal history, and behavioral responses. Along with Skinner, other well-known psychological behaviorists include Edward Thorndike, known for his work in educational psychology, and Ivan Pavlov, best remembered for his work regarding conditioning.

Behaviorism has declined in popularity in modern times. Many feel that behaviorism is too limited, and argue that behavior cannot be accurately explained without considering nonbehavioral inner states of being, such as cognitive activity and emotions. Skinner’s behaviorism is also rejected for its controversial views on consciousness—which Skinner claims is a social construct unique to humans and dependent on language—and free will, which Skinner holds as illusory (Graham, George. “Behaviorism.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2023.). Although behaviorism is less prevalent in modern psychology, it is still utilized, including in the applied behavior analysis therapy method.

blurred text
blurred text
blurred text
blurred text

Related Titles

By B. F. Skinner