American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House

Though orphaned at a young age, Andrew Jackson was nevertheless influenced by his mother, Elizabeth, a devout Presbyterian who instilled in him values of duty, resilience, and religious faith. Her teachings emphasized honesty, steadfastness, and personal honor, which Jackson carried throughout his life. His early experiences attending the Waxhaw Presbyterian meetinghouse exposed him to formal language and biblical stories, shaping his moral outlook and self-perception in a heroic, biblical light.

His early life involved a persistent sense of inferiority and alienation, stemming from his precarious position within his extended family and the broader community. Growing up as an orphan, Jackson was constantly reminded of his dependent status. He lived with relatives who provided shelter but little emotional support, making him feel like an outsider in their homes. This upbringing instilled in him a drive to prove himself worthy of respect and acceptance. Jackson’s efforts to fit in and earn recognition often manifested in aggressive and combative behavior as he sought to assert his place in a world that he believed was intent on marginalizing him.

The feeling of not belonging extended into Jackson’s adult life, during which he continued to grapple with a sense of inadequacy. Even with his achievements and rise to prominence, Jackson never fully shed the stigma of his humble origins. His lack of formal education compared to the elites of his time was a source of embarrassment and fueled his resentment toward the established social order. Jackson’s need for validation drove his pursuit of honor and recognition both on the battlefield and in the political arena. This need also influenced his relationships, as he surrounded himself with a close-knit circle of trusted friends and family members who provided the loyalty and acceptance he craved.

Andrew Jackson obtained his law license in 1787 and quickly gained notoriety for his aggressive conduct. He met Rachel Donelson, a married woman, in 1788 and became involved with her, exacerbating her already troubled marriage. Believing her husband, Lewis Robards, had finalized their divorce, Jackson married Rachel only to discover two years later that they were not legally married, making their union technically adulterous. He held various positions over the following years, such as attorney general, congressman, and senator.

Jackson’s military career flourished in the War of 1812; as major general of the Tennessee militia, he earned the nickname “Old Hickory” for his resilience. Jackson’s temper led to violent confrontations, such as a fight in which Jackson’s arm was severely wounded. While he was recovering, news arrived of a Creek attack at Fort Mims. Jackson’s forces faced challenges but ultimately ended the Creek War in August 1814, with the Creeks ceding 23 million acres to the US.

In late 1814, Jackson defended New Orleans against the British, achieving a victory with minimal American casualties, which boosted his fame. However, Rachel was wary of his growing popularity. Th​​e Jacksons had no children of their own, but they took in Rachel’s nephew, Andrew, and later adopted Andrew Jackson Jr., the son of Rachel’s brother. During the Creek War, Jackson also adopted a Creek boy named Lyncoya.

After New Orleans, Jackson continued his military actions against Indigenous Americans. His crusade to secure the nation’s borders brought him into conflict with Spanish-controlled Florida—specifically, a fort that harbored fugitives from slavery. Soon after, President Monroe authorized Jackson to address conflicts involving the Seminole tribe, implicitly supporting broader actions. Jackson responded by invading Florida and causing a diplomatic crisis with England by executing two British subjects there.

In 1824, Andrew Donelson married Jackson’s niece, Emily, and the Donelsons became Jackson’s closest companions. That was also the year when he became a political figure on the national stage. His political rivals included John C. Calhoun, Henry Clay, and John Quincy Adams. Presidential candidates were chosen by congressional caucuses, a method that persisted until 1824. In that year’s four-way race, Jackson won the popular vote but lost the presidency in the House of Representatives due to Henry Clay’s support for John Quincy Adams. Jackson viewed Clay’s decision as a betrayal, believing Clay had struck a “corrupt bargain” with Adams in exchange for a Cabinet position. This perceived betrayal fueled Jackson’s enduring enmity toward Clay and his mistrust of Washington politics, which he saw as corrupt and self-serving. As Jackson returned to Tennessee, his supporters continued to rally for his future candidacy. In 1828, Jackson won 56% of the popular vote and defeated Adams in the electoral college.

Jackson believed the nation was plagued by corruption, which he saw not just as scandal but as the concentration of power and influence among a few institutions and interests. He aimed to dismantle the entrenched federal establishment that allowed figures like Adams and Clay to thrive regardless of public will. Jackson was particularly concerned about the power of the Second Bank of the United States, which he believed manipulated elections and controlled the economy without accountability to the public or the president.

Evangelical Christian leaders in the early 19th century aimed to bring religious principles into public life and sought to involve Jackson in their efforts. They believed that law needed religion to maintain social cohesion. Jackson, however, kept a clear distinction between church influence and political governance, combating public corruption through political means and resisting religious impositions on public policy. Although Jackson was not against religion, he was wary of clergy, seeing them as barriers between him and the public.

Jackson was concerned about federal funding for internal improvements like roads and canals, favoring leaving such projects to the states. He opposed the approach of John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay, who supported federally funded improvements through tariffs and public land sales. Jackson also viewed the national debt as dangerous, believing it shifted power from the people to creditors. In international politics, Jackson presented a strong front: He viewed attacks on individual Americans as a threat to the nation itself.

Calhoun was sworn in as vice president, but Jackson and Calhoun were ideologically and politically divergent. Calhoun, initially a nationalist who championed the War of 1812, had shifted toward a states’ rights position and was especially concerned about protective tariffs favoring the North and potentially leading to federal interference with slavery. In 1828, he secretly drafted the South Carolina Exposition and Protest advocating nullification: the idea that a state could void federal laws it deemed unconstitutional, potentially leading to secession if a constitutional amendment enforcing the law passed. Calhoun hoped Jackson would reduce tariffs and ease Southern concerns, clearing the path for his own presidential aspirations.

Jackson took possession of the White House without the customary courtesy visit to his predecessor. This lack of communication possibly contributed to the ensuing chaos at Jackson’s inauguration reception. No arrangements or police presence had been established, leading to an unruly mob overrunning the mansion. Emily Donelson, who served as White House hostess throughout Jackson’s tenure (Rachel having died shortly after his election), was horrified by the chaotic scene at Jackson’s inauguration reception; it contrasted with her desire to present a polished image of her family. Jackson trusted her judgment on social matters, always deferring to her decisions. The Donelsons formed the core of President Jackson’s world, but his aide Major William B. Lewis was also a constant presence. Emily viewed Lewis with hostility, seeing him as a rival for Jackson’s attention and influence, especially given Lewis’s connection to John Henry Eaton, the new secretary of war. Eaton, a close and trusted confidant of Jackson, had been a key figure in Jackson’s political career and was now bringing both his loyalty and his controversial new wife, Margaret, into the administration.

The Eaton crisis began at a boardinghouse, where the Calhouns moved after leaving their Georgetown mansion. The Eatons visited them there, and Margaret’s bold demeanor clashed with Floride Calhoun, a woman from South Carolina aristocracy known for her temper. Floride’s influence over her husband, Vice President Calhoun, and her high social standing made her acceptance crucial. However, Floride chose not to return the visit—a social acknowledgment of respectability—believing the rumors of adultery sufficient to avoid socializing with Margaret. Calhoun’s deferral to his wife’s opinion put him in opposition to President Jackson, as accepting the Eatons signified support for Jackson, while rejection indicated opposition. Although Emily initially returned Margaret’s call to please Jackson, she quickly grew uncomfortable with Margaret’s familiarity and resolved not to visit her again, anticipating it would cause embarrassment for Jackson. Eaton’s condescending attitude toward Andrew Donelson only fueled the discord.

In 1828, Jackson became concerned about the stirrings of nullification in South Carolina, viewing it as a serious threat to the Union. Initially, Jackson did not include a South Carolinian in his cabinet due to the state’s actions. As the Eaton Affair unfolded, Jackson grew suspicious that Calhoun and some Southern radicals were using the controversy to undermine his administration and gain control. South Carolinians distrusted Eaton, especially for his stance on the tariff, which they viewed as damaging to the South. Eaton’s reluctance to support South Carolina’s position during the 1828 tariff debates deepened the rift between Calhoun and Jackson.

Jackson faced opposition from the Washington elite as he undertook a major overhaul of the federal establishment, replacing many officials to reward loyalty and ensure his administration’s policies were executed effectively. Jackson’s reforms were unprecedented in scope, removing around 919 officials—nearly 10% of the government. He believed that officials were using public resources to entrench themselves in power, a practice he viewed as a severe threat to democracy.