58 pages • 1 hour read
Karen ArmstrongA History of God: The 4000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
Nonfiction | Book | Adult | Published in 1993A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.
Part 6Chapter Summaries & Analyses
Part 6, Chapter 10 Summary: “The Death of God?”
In the transformative 19th century, with sweeping advancements in science and technology, the very essence of divinity was put under the microscope. The era fostered a spirit of autonomy, resulting in increasing skepticism toward traditional religion. Thinkers like Ludwig Feuerbach and Karl Marx advanced ideologies that denied the existence of God, positioning human beings at the center. Darwin’s evolutionary theory provided an alternative explanation to the biblical account of creation, challenging long-held religious beliefs. Nietzsche’s bold proclamation that “God was dead” (506) signified a profound shift, suggesting that humanity could surpass its need for God, aspiring instead to the ideals of the “Superman.” Nietzsche critiqued Christianity for stunting human potential, while Freud, viewing religion as an evolutionary relic, predicted that science would eventually replace God in societal significance. However, he was also wary of the repercussions of eradicating religious beliefs too abruptly.
The Romantic movement provided a counter-narrative. Romantics, including luminaries like John Keats, William Wordsworth, and William Blake, stressed the sanctity of imagination and intuition. They posited these faculties as gateways to truths, which, though not empirically verifiable, were deeply human and profound. In a similar vein, theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher emphasized religion’s emotional dimension. He believed that the sensation of “absolute dependence” was intrinsic to the religious experience. However, as Christianity’s traditional frameworks seemed increasingly antiquated to many, critiques arose. Some theologians and thinkers contended that doctrines like the Trinity were more a product of cultural amalgamations than genuine Christian beliefs.
As the Western world grappled with God’s shifting image, it influenced other cultures through colonization, including the Muslim world. The colonial gaze, typified by Lord Cromer’s dismissive views on the “Oriental mind,” often painted Islam as an impediment to progress. The pressure to modernize led leaders like Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in Turkey to champion secular reforms, while Muslim intellectuals like Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, and Sir Muhammad Iqbal advocated for a synthesis of Islamic principles with Western rationalism. Iqbal, particularly influenced by Western philosophers, placed individualism at the core of progress. He envisioned the universe as representing an Absolute––a concept akin to God––and urged individuals to mirror this Absolute’s traits of individuality and creativity.
Jewish thought also underwent significant metamorphosis. Judaism, like Christianity, was also reinterpreted in Europe. Some intellectuals presented it as a rational, ethical religion, distinct from Christianity’s alleged pagan influences. Nachman Krochmal, drawing on Kabbalistic themes, explored Jewish achievements as stemming more from collective consciousness than divine intervention. Hermann Cohen viewed God as a manifestation of ethical ideals, while Franz Rosenzweig emphasized the sacramental nature of religious commandments. The Zionist movement, against a backdrop of rising anti-Semitism, sought to reestablish Jewish autonomy in their ancestral homeland, combining political goals with spiritual aspirations. Figures like Aaron David Gordon believed that by laboring on the land, Jews could establish a profound spiritual connection, echoing divine purpose.
Abraham Isaac Kook, a prominent Kabbalist, believed that traditional views of God were restrictive. He envisioned God, or “En Sof,” as a boundless entity beyond human comprehension. He saw the secular Zionist movement as part of a divine plan, where even those who consciously moved away from religious practices were still playing a part in a grander spiritual narrative. However, this unwavering dedication to the Holy Land’s history could also potentially sow seeds of fundamentalism.
Lastly, the Holocaust presented a profound theological challenge. People questioned how an all-powerful and benevolent God could allow such horrors. Elie Wiesel’s harrowing Auschwitz experiences exemplified the Jewish existential and spiritual crises. While for some, Auschwitz symbolized the end of a traditional God, others, in the very heart of this darkness, clung to rituals, underscoring the resilience and depth of faith.
Part 6, Chapter 11 Summary: “Does God Have a Future?”
In the second half of the 20th century, debate intensified about the future and relevance of God: Can the concept of God evolve in the modern era as it has for the last 4000 years? Peter Berger noted how the present often deems itself as the definitive viewpoint, pushing the past into obsolescence. Europe saw a spike in atheism, hinting at a cultural departure from conventional religious tenets. Influential writers like Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, and A.J. Ayer promoted atheism or queried the legitimacy of God.
The 1960s heralded proclamations of God’s demise, with figures like Thomas J. Altizer viewing secularism as a transformative step for theology. However, some critics pointed out that such beliefs primarily sprouted from affluent Western settings, ignoring the marginalized. Jewish theologian Richard Rubenstein struggled to reconcile a kind God with Holocaust atrocities, but others like Hans Jonas and Louis Jacobs derived comfort from diverse theological viewpoints. A central theme emerges: The modern perception of God is in flux.
Historical theologians have constantly mulled over God’s nature. Karl Barth argued against natural theology, viewing the Bible as the exclusive source for understanding God. Paul Tillich believed in a “God above God” and depicted God as the “Ground of being” (545), intertwined with human experiences. Jesuit Pierre Teilhard de Chardin combined evolution with theology, seeing God as evolution’s zenith. Process theology emphasized God’s synchrony with the world, while the Jesuit Karl Rahner described God as the ultimate enigma. Hans Urs von Balthasar looked to art for divine insight. In Islam, Abu al-Kalam Azad and Frithjof Schuon studied the Koranic perspective of God and the idea of Oneness, while Dr. Ali Shariati urged a fresh interpretation of age-old faith symbols.
Jewish philosophy, via Martin Buber, framed religion as a quest for unity, encountering God via genuine human connections. Buber described two relationship realms: “I-It” and “I-Thou.” However, his perspective, differing from traditional Jewish views, resonated more with Christians. Abraham Joshua Heschel underscored the importance of the mitzvot (commandments). Philosophers like Martin Heidegger and Ernst Bloch also delved into God, with Bloch associating God with humanity’s progressive nature. In the same era, “Fundamentalism” emerged, wedding strict religious interpretations with politics, as seen with figures like Jerry Falwell and Colin Urquhart.
Armstrong asserts that such fundamentalism can be limiting. Rabbi Meir Kahane’s one-dimensional view of Judaism overlooks its intricate evolution. As some fundamentalists use God to justify denying human rights, many others grow uncomfortable and wish to distance themselves from such beliefs. Elevating issues like “Family Values” to the center of devotion can become a new idolatry. True monotheism champions virtues like compassion and social justice, transcending selfishness and bias. Focusing on rituals at the cost of a deep bond with God, as in the Moses-Golden Calf episode, has often been a pitfall. Even though many critique the portrayal of God as an authoritarian, there’s a consistent search for ultimate purpose among Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Today’s idea of God should weave in modern experiences, including science and reason, offering a chance to unearth age-old truths for a harmonious God interpretation.
Albert Einstein, while valuing mysticism, clearly distinguished between his scientific work and theology. The Creator concept wasn’t always universally embraced; for instance, creatio ex nihilo (the doctrine that matter had to be deliberately created by God out of nothing) became an official Christian doctrine only in 341 CE. This was not a scientific origin story but a symbolic reflection of spiritual truths. Literal interpretations of scripture, when confronted with science, often caused crises of faith.
Many of today’s objections to the personal God arise from its perceived inadequacies on multiple fronts. Mystics suggest an alternative, seeing God as an internal experience. Mysticism demands deep commitment, clashing with today’s fast-paced lifestyles. The decline in religious adherence mirrors a broader struggle to find purpose, manifesting in societal problems like crime. Perhaps the way forward lies in reshaping faith for contemporary times, drawing lessons from historical beliefs and understandings of God.
Part 6 Analysis
When viewed through Armstrong’s framework, the evolution of the concept of God mirrors a broader human narrative, revealing an ongoing quest for understanding, meaning, and connection amidst changing circumstances. These circumstances often illustrate The Influence of Social Change on Religious Belief. Throughout the 19th century, the role and significance of God in society underwent radical transformation. Advances in science and technology not only expanded human understanding of the world but also triggered introspection into the nature of divinity. Thinkers of this period openly challenged the traditional frameworks of God, proposing more human-centric worldviews. This shift was not just an intellectual exercise, but reflected the changing socio-economic realities that privileged scientific inquiry, rationalism, and technological advancement.
Armstrong emphasizes the tensions between the movements that favored scientific rationality and those that clung to a more mystical and emotive conception of the world and divinity. Scientific and philosophical theories advanced by Darwin, Nietzsche, and Freud questioned established religious beliefs, positioning humanity, not God, at the center of the universe. These developments rejected traditional religious authority and hinted at a world where religious faith was becoming increasingly irrelevant. Meanwhile, the Romantic movement emphasized the enduring importance of human intuition and emotion. Armstrong regards the Romantics as maintaining something of the old mystical spirit in their valorization of the natural world and the imagination. Here, Armstrong reveals some of her biases, hinting at the limitations of pure rationalism, pointing out that while reason can illuminate many aspects of our world, it cannot capture the entirety of human experience. She does not, however, address the fact that some prominent Romantic thinkers—such as Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron—were atheists or religious skeptics who rejected traditional religious doctrines as impediments to human moral progress. She also does not acknowledge the fact that some Romantics maintained a keen interest in scientific developments.
Armstrong closes the book by exploring the existential battles of the 20th century, where, amid the cacophony of voices declaring God’s irrelevance, there emerged undertones of a persistent search for meaning. The modern era, while teeming with secularism, couldn’t quite rid itself of the age-old questions of purpose, morality, and existence. One of Armstrong’s central ideas is the perennial nature of these questions. Whether it is Jean-Paul Sartre’s existentialism or Karl Barth’s theology, humans repeatedly grapple with the same core issues, dressed in the language and paradigms of their times. Furthermore, this period witnessed a surge in attempts to reconcile science and religion. Thinkers from various backgrounds tried to find a nexus between the two, suggesting that perhaps the perceived dichotomy was more superficial than substantive.
In the modern era, Armstrong suggests, the biggest challenge isn’t atheism or secularism per se. It’s the risk of reducing faith to mere ritual or dogma, devoid of its transformative power. The problem arises when people forget some of the virtues of monotheism: compassion, social justice, and self-transcendence. Armstrong argues that when faith reverts to fundamentalism and becomes politicized or weaponized, it loses its true purpose. By highlighting thinkers like Einstein and referencing events like the proclamation of creatio ex nihilo, Armstrong emphasizes that our understanding of God has always been in flux. The challenges posed by science, reason, and modern lifestyles don’t necessarily negate God but invite a more profound introspection into God’s nature.
