58 pages • 1 hour read
Karen ArmstrongA History of God: The 4000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
Nonfiction | Book | Adult | Published in 1993A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.
Part 5Chapter Summaries & Analyses
Part 5, Chapter 8 Summary: “A God for Reformers”
In the Christian West, the onset of the Renaissance, the discovery of the New World, and the burgeoning scientific revolution marked significant secular advancements. Europe’s religious underpinnings were not left untouched. There was a pronounced unease about faith, stemming from the laity’s dissatisfaction with medieval religious structures. This prompted religious thinkers and reformers to revisit ideas about God and salvation. The ensuing theological debate and dissatisfaction led to the major schism between Catholics and Protestants.
Meanwhile, profound changes were underway outside the Christian sphere. The Ottoman Turks dealt a final blow to the Byzantine Empire by capturing Constantinople. Spain eliminated the last Muslim bastion in Granada, and the Jewish community faced a tragic choice: convert or face expulsion. This marked yet another chapter in the Jewish experience of exile and had profound implications for their theological thinking. Many Jews, in their search for spiritual solace, turned to the Kabbalah. This transformative movement in Jewish spirituality found its luminary in Isaac Luria. Luria’s conceptualization of how a perfect, infinite God could allow a flawed world to exist was groundbreaking. He introduced the idea of tsimtsum, the act of divine withdrawal, creating a void, followed by the emanation of the sefiroth (divine attributes). Luria believed that through devout practices like observing the Torah, humans play a role in redeeming the world.
In the Muslim world, there was a notable shift toward conservatism, culminating in the declaration that the “gates of ijtihad” (innovative theological interpretations) (373) were closed. Alongside this conservative shift, Islam experienced a golden period, marked by the rise of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Moghul empires. Their reigns witnessed significant cultural and artistic accomplishments. Iranian Shiism, in particular, saw deep theological insights, particularly from Mulla Sadra. He proposed that individuals could experience a union with God in their lifetime, emphasizing an inner spiritual journey and discovery. This mystical vision contrasted with Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi’s perspective, who saw God as beyond human reach.
Religious tolerance became a hallmark of this period in certain Islamic quarters, most notably under the rule of the Moghul emperor Akbar. He championed inter-religious dialogue, establishing platforms like the House of Worship. Still, this spirit was not ubiquitous, and with the ascent of Aurengzebe, religious policies became strict.
In the Christian West, despite significant advancements, religious intolerance was rampant. The Jewish expulsion from Spain and the rise of witch-hunts in Europe highlighted underlying fears and tensions. These were times of great religious upheaval, and the term “Reformation,” though commonly used, is an oversimplification. The religious changes of the 16th century were not mere reactions to church corruption or declining piety; factors like urban growth, rising nationalism, increased religious awareness among the laity, and a newfound sense of European individualism also played roles in shaping the Reformation.
Central to this movement were Martin Luther and John Calvin. Luther’s journey from despair to his breakthrough understanding of “justification by faith” laid the foundation for a simpler approach to faith. Calvin’s influence spread far and wide, from the Puritan revolution in England to the very foundations of the United States. His theological perspectives, especially on God’s sovereignty, had profound socio-political and economic implications.
The period was marked by both light and darkness in spirituality. Figures like Ignatius emphasized joy and serenity as paths to God, while others, like Teresa of Avila, grappled with an intense dichotomy between the worldly and the divine. The Reformation’s divisive nature and the anxieties it fostered even brought the term “atheism” into debates, although its usage was more about disagreements on God’s nature than a denial of His existence.
Science and religion also found themselves at a crossroads. The Roman Catholic Church, especially after the Council of Trent, leaned heavily into literal interpretations of scriptures. This stance led to conflicts with scientific discoveries, such as Copernicus’s heliocentric theory and Galileo’s telescopic findings. Despite many religious thinkers and mystics advocating for symbolic or metaphorical interpretations of scriptures, mainstream religious leadership often held onto biblical literalism. By presenting God as an “objective fact” discernible through reason, theologians like Leonard Lessius inadvertently set the stage for future atheistic arguments.
Part 5, Chapter 9 Summary: “Enlightenment”
By the late 16th century, Western technical advancements produced a profound societal transformation that challenged perceptions of God’s role. As Europe began to dominate by the 18th century, Islamic regions in Africa and the Middle East, which had previously resisted Western influence, faced Westernization and rising secularism. This dominance heralded a new era of industrialization, “enlightenment,” and socio-political revolutions. Unlike their agrarian predecessors, Western societies, powered by technological prowess, embraced the idea of constant progress, replacing older, more conservative mindsets.
This optimism emboldened intellectuals, as they began to see humanity as capable of enlightenment without divine intervention. However, this led to a fragmented worldview, with many challenging established religious narratives. Blaise Pascal, amid the scientific optimism, felt daunted by the universe’s vastness, proclaiming, “I am moved to terror” (428). He believed that God’s existence could not be proven and described faith as a gamble, while Descartes found evidence of God in human consciousness, approaching religion systematically.
Isaac Newton’s perspective sought to demystify Christianity, seeing God as the universe’s mechanic. Newton’s belief in God emphasized dominion, contrasting Descartes’s idea of perfection. Critics believed Newton’s concept of gravity contradicted Protestant ideas, but he saw it as proof of an intelligent designer. With figures like Tindal and Toland pushing for a rational understanding of Christianity, a more objective examination of church history led to skepticism about foundational religious beliefs.
Western Christians’ move toward literalism posed challenges when juxtaposed against a scientific mindset. The historical accuracy of biblical events became a point of contention. John Friedmann Mayer criticized the portrayal of an “angered God,” and John Milton’s Paradise Lost epitomized the theological dilemmas of the time, depicting a contradictory God. The Enlightenment period brought forth Deism: Philosophers like Voltaire rejected certain literalist doctrines, but they still acknowledged a Supreme Being. Amongst Jewish thinkers, Baruch Spinoza challenged traditional beliefs and posited God as synonymous with the universe’s order. Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn leaned toward Enlightenment reasoning, while Kant’s perspective viewed God as an ethical tool rather than the universe’s essence. Amidst these intellectual tussles, a new spirituality surfaced, valuing personal connection over traditional proofs.
John Wesley, influenced by the Moravian sect, emphasized personal conversion, replacing traditional doctrines with personal religious emotions. Figures such as William Cowper and Count von Zinzendorf prioritized heartfelt religious experiences. This era also witnessed radical sects like the Diggers, Quakers, and Ranters in England, who stressed direct communication with God, challenging traditional religious structures. Their beliefs mirrored earlier pantheistic visions, such as those of the Brethren of the Free Spirit. Moreover, figures like William Franklin and John Robbins claimed divine status, with radical Ranters like Jacob Bauthumely pushing revolutionary spiritual ideas. The “Great Awakening” in the 1730s illustrated the tension between religious passion and Enlightenment ideals.
Jonathan Edwards’ evangelical fervor contrasted with the Founding Fathers’ restraint, but his theology intertwined with revolutionary sentiments, shaping America’s religious landscape. Concurrently, in Jewish history, figures like Shabbetai Zevi and Abraham Cardazo challenged traditional beliefs, with the latter proposing a Trinitarian framework for Jewish monotheism. Jacob Frank took Sabbatarianism—the belief that working should be forbidden on the Sabbath—to its extreme, but the movement also paved the way for the Jewish Enlightenment and Reform Judaism.
In response to societal traumas, Hasidism emerged, emphasizing a heart-centered religious experience. The Baal Shem Tov, its founder, integrated mysticism with daily practices, introducing an optimistic interpretation of Kabbalism. Rabbi Shneur Zalman later fused mysticism with rational contemplation in Habad Hasidism. Simultaneously, as Sufism waned in the Muslim world, figures like Muhammad ibn al-Wahhab advocated for a purer form of Islam.
In Europe, atheism gained ground, with thinkers like David Hume and Denis Diderot questioning God’s existence. Diderot posited that matter itself, not God, was responsible for the universe’s design. The Enlightenment led to science overshadowing religion, with figures like Holbach asserting God was a human-made concept. This shift would eventually culminate in the belief among some intellectuals that “God was dead” (493), marking a significant shift in the West’s religious landscape.
Part 5 Analysis
Part 5 emphasizes The Influence of Social Change on Religious Beliefs. The Reformation was deeply influenced by numerous factors, including urban growth, rising nationalism, increased religious awareness, and a blossoming European individualism. The resulting theological debates, championed by figures like Martin Luther and John Calvin, did more than just challenge existing religious orthodoxy. They redefined the relationship between man and God, emphasizing personal faith and a more direct connection to the divine. Their religious doctrines also had political implications, transferring the religious authority traditionally wielded by the Roman Catholic Church to political leaders who could wield both political and religious jurisdictions within their realms. Outside the Christian realm, the Jewish experience of exile, including their expulsion from Spain, forced many to seek spiritual solace. A transformative movement in Jewish spirituality, the Kabbalah, offered answers. Isaac Luria’s introduction of tsimtsum proposed a way to reconcile the existence of a perfect God with a flawed world, offering a spiritual solution to the social problems of displacement and persecution.
The social and scientific changes ushered in by the Enlightenment also directly impacted religious beliefs, further reinforcing this theme. The heavy philosophic emphasis on reason, logic, and empirical evidence posed new questions about God’s role in a world increasingly dominated by human achievements. Newton and Descartes attempted to reconcile their beliefs with their scientific discoveries, leading to diverse interpretations of God’s role and nature. Deism, which retained a belief in a supreme being or “prime mover” in the universe while rejecting traditional notions of a personal god, reflected the age’s emphasis on rationality and changing conceptions of what religious belief should entail. On the more extreme end, the rise of atheistic arguments and the belief among some that “God was dead” signified the challenges posed to traditional religious beliefs by a more rational and evidence-based worldview.
The overarching narrative of these chapters is one of tension and transformation. It is a portrayal of religion’s enduring, if not inevitable, nature, of people’s capacity to evolve and adapt religious understanding according to shifting contexts. It also shows the vulnerability of such religious understandings in the face of rapid societal and intellectual shifts. Armstrong continues her quest to demonstrate that, as the world around changes, so does humanity’s understanding of God, highlighting the intricate and evolving relationship between society, knowledge, and spirituality.
