58 pages • 1 hour read
Karen ArmstrongA History of God: The 4000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
Nonfiction | Book | Adult | Published in 1993A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.
Part 3Chapter Summaries & Analyses
Part 3, Chapter 4 Summary: Trinity: “The Christian God”
By 320 CE, regions like Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor were engulfed in theological fervor, grappling with the exact nature of the relationship between Jesus Christ— often referred to as “the Son” or Logos—and God the Father. A charismatic presbyter from Alexandria named Arius proposed a radical idea, claiming that Jesus, though divine, was not on an equal footing with God the Father in terms of eternal divinity. He described Jesus as “strong God” and “full God,” but contended that this divinity was a reward rather than intrinsic to Jesus’s nature. This essentially posited Jesus as subordinate, challenging long-held beliefs about his nature and role within the divine hierarchy.
In stark contrast, Athanasius and his supporters staunchly defended the idea that Jesus was inherently divine—that he was, and always had been, God. They argued that only someone of God’s own nature could offer salvation to humanity. The schism grew so intense that Emperor Constantine intervened, convening a synod at Nicaea. Here, bishops with varied beliefs congregated. However, it was Athanasius’s viewpoint that triumphed, cementing the belief that Jesus was “of one substance (homoousion) with the Father” (172). However, this proclamation did not mark the end of the Arian controversy: For years, political and theological skirmishes continued, showcasing the complexities in early Christian theology.
Concepts such as homoousion and homoiousion were central to the debates about Jesus’s divinity. Marcellus of Ancyra introduced the term homoiousion as a middle ground, suggesting that Jesus was of a similar nature, but not identical to God. Despite the esoteric nature of these debates, they were instrumental in shaping Christian thought, aiming to elucidate the profound implications of Jesus’s presence and his role in salvation.
Athanasius further elevated the spiritual dimension of the discourse, highlighting the life of Antony, a figure who exemplified Christian spirituality by imitating Christ’s journey into the material world. Later, the Cappadocian theologians—Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus—offered fresh insights and solutions to the longstanding Logos enigma. They asserted that while God’s true essence remains a mystery, human beings can perceive his manifestations as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—a doctrine that later became known as “the Trinity” in Christian dogma.
St. Augustine developed a psychological interpretation of the Trinity, suggesting it mirrored the human mind’s faculties: memory, understanding, and will. Moreover, Augustine’s introduction of the doctrine of Original Sin posited that humanity’s inherent sinfulness was a result of Adam’s transgressions. This doctrine and Augustine’s views on human nature, particularly concerning sexuality and women, had a lasting impact on Western Christianity’s ethos.
Denys the Areopagite, drawing inspiration from Neoplatonism, brought another perspective, emphasizing God’s ineffability and suggesting a mystical ascent into divine mystery as the true path to understanding Him. This portrayal of God, one who passionately engages with humanity, was a departure from the aloof deity proposed by Greek philosophers.
Significantly, the chapter underscores the stark contrasts between Eastern and Western theological interpretations. While the Greek Orthodox view cherishes the inherent divine potential within humans, the Western perspective, influenced by figures like Anselm, sometimes portrays a more anthropomorphic God, demanding reparation for humanity’s sins. Such differences not only shaped theological discourses but also influenced Christianity’s reactions to emerging religious revelations, such as the advent of Islam in the 7th century.
Part 3, Chapter 5 Summary: “Unity: The God of Islam”
In 610 AD, Muhammad ibn Abdallah, a Meccan merchant, underwent a spiritual awakening, reminiscent of biblical prophets, on Mount Hira during Ramadan. Amidst Mecca’s shift from a nomadic society to a trading behemoth, materialism began overshadowing tribal unity, duty, and the collective good––elements embodied by the Arab ethos “muruwah.”
Muhammad discerned this unchecked capitalism as detrimental to Meccan harmony. Surrounding tribes, though aware of God al-Lah (linked to the Jewish and Christian God), lacked a distinctive scripture or prophet, fostering a spiritual inferiority. Some aspired for an Abrahamian monotheism, preceding both Judaism and Christianity. By 632 AD, Muhammad had united many Arabian tribes under a spirituality rooted in their heritage, propelling the Arabs into an influential empire.
On the 17th night of Ramadan in 610, Muhammad received a divine command from an angel to “Recite!” (iqra!). Initially resisting, fearing the stigma of being labeled a soothsayer (kahin), he eventually began reciting what would be integrated into the Qur’an (often anglicized as “the Koran”). Fearing possession, Muhammad considered suicide but was deterred by further visions. Assured by his wife, Khadija, and her Christian cousin, Waraqa, Muhammad understood these revelations as divine. These episodic messages, spanning 23 years, sought not a universal religion but to reintroduce monotheism to the Quraysh (the Arab clans), emphasizing their oversight of al-Lah’s role as creator and sustainer.
The early Koranic verses reminded the Quraysh of God’s benevolence and their responsibility to perceive His signs in nature, manifesting His graciousness in society. The essence of the Koran was not just theological, but ethical, emphasizing societal fairness and the sharing of wealth. It advocated salat (prayer) and zakat (alms-giving) as essential practices. Al-Lah in the Koran seemed more distant than the biblical God, with the world filled with signs (ayat) of Him that should be rationally deciphered. The Koran’s Arabic essence, difficult to translate, induced deep spiritual experiences in its reciters.
The Koran’s transformative power disrupted the established order, prompting self-reflection and challenging societal norms. It played a crucial role in the Arabs’ swift transition to monotheism. Younger Meccans and marginalized groups, disillusioned by materialism, were drawn to Muhammad’s teachings. Still, his monotheistic thrust and rejection of paganism led to significant opposition and persecution. The Koran consistently negated the potency of pagan gods, accentuating the singular omnipotence of al-Lah. This oneness of God required that believers integrate this concept into their daily lives, fostering respect for others’ spiritual journeys as all true religions emanate from one God.
Muslims identify their epoch from the hijra (migration to Medina), marking Islam’s metamorphosis into a political force. The Koran’s vision was for a just, equitable society. Although Muhammad often participated in wars, they were mostly defensive, emphasizing a theology of righteous warfare. Islam advocated freedom of belief, emphasized by the Koranic phrase, “no compulsion in religion” (234). By his life’s end, Muhammad had united most Arabian tribes under Islam, with hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) underscoring the unity and spirituality of the Muslim community. Despite his teachings emphasizing gender equity, these principles were later overshadowed by patriarchal interpretations. Following his death, succession disputes led to the Sunni and Shi’a schism. Islam’s political triumph was intertwined with its religious essence, contrasting with Christianity.
To emulate the ideals of Muhammad and the Rashidun—the first four “caliphs,” or supreme leaders—Shariah law was instituted, similar to the Torah, drawing from the Koran and the Prophet’s life. Various traditions (hadith) about Muhammad’s practices (sunnah) were consolidated by editors like al-Bukhari. These traditions influenced daily Muslim life for centuries, promoting equality among followers. The understanding of the Koran as the eternal, unchanging word of God, allowed Muslims to directly sense God’s presence. The Shiis revered the descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib, leading to debates about the nature of the Koran as God’s Word. Some extreme Shiis perceived their Imams as incarnate facets of God, reminiscent of Christian perceptions of Jesus.
Intricate theological discussions emerged within Islam regarding God’s nature and the Koran’s interpretation. Traditionists differentiated between God’s essence and actions, mirroring Jewish notions. Debates peaked when Caliph al-Mamum supported the rationalistic Mutazilis. Ibn Hanbal opposed rationalistic interpretations, emphasizing the Koran’s literal understanding. Al-Ashari, seeking a balance between rationalism and tradition, created the Kalam discourse. Al-Baqillani, an Asharite, proposed atomism, where everything was dependent on God. These theological debates were influenced by Greek rationalism, mirroring challenges faced by Christianity and Judaism in reconciling theology with logic.
Part 3 Analysis
Part 3 spotlights Intersections and Divergences within Monotheism. Chapter 4 revolves around the conceptual evolution of the Christian God, particularly the intricacies surrounding Jesus Christ’s divinity. The theological debates—like those between Arius and Athanasius—emphasize how formulating religious dogma was not a straightforward process but involved fervent disputes and intense contemplation. The sheer scale of the debate, drawing in even political figures like Emperor Constantine, reflects how intertwined politics and theology became in shaping religious doctrine, especially once Christianity became the official state religion of the Roman Empire.
The underpinning methodology Armstrong employs is the weaving of historical events with theological debates. Armstrong underscores the influence of philosophical traditions like Neoplatonism on religious thought, as evident from Denys the Areopagite’s contributions. Moreover, she contrasts Eastern and Western theological interpretations, indicating how geographical and cultural differences can lead to divergent religious expressions.
Armstrong details the societal transformation in Mecca, setting the stage for Muhammad’s revelations. By introducing this societal context, she emphasizes the interconnectedness of socio-economic factors and religious awakening. Armstrong’s narrative explains the Koran’s influence, not just as a religious text, but as an ethical guide and a call for societal reform. By drawing parallels between the Koran’s emphasis on societal fairness and the early Christian emphasis on Jesus’s role in salvation, Armstrong showcases the underlying shared ethos of these religious traditions: They both offer solutions to perceived societal or spiritual shortcomings, reflecting Religion as a Universal Human Experience. As Armstrong emphasizes, religion is not simply a set of dogmatic beliefs or rituals, but a living, evolving response to the human condition, containing both practical and metaphysical aspects.
Her treatment of Islam examines the complexities within the religion itself. Like the Christian theological debates, Armstrong delves into intricate theological discussions within Islam, such as the nature of the Koran and God’s essence. These debates, influenced by Greek rationalism, exemplify the evolution of religious thought, particularly the challenges of reconciling ancient religious texts with evolving human understanding, once more reinforcing that religions evolve in response to both internal theological contemplation and external societal forces.
